BPC-157: Complete Scientific Guide

Few peptides have generated as much excitement — or as much confusion — as BPC-157. Named after the "Body Protection Compound" found in human gastric juice, this 15-amino-acid peptide has been the subject of hundreds of preclinical studies showing remarkable healing properties across nearly every organ system tested. It has also become a favorite of biohackers, podcasters, and longevity enthusiasts who call it the "Wolverine peptide" for its apparent ability to accelerate tissue repair.

But here is the tension: despite decades of animal research and surging consumer interest, BPC-157 has almost no published human clinical data. The FDA has classified it as a Category 2 bulk drug substance, effectively banning it from compounding pharmacies. WADA prohibits it for athletes. And the vast majority of its research comes from a single Croatian lab.

So what does the science actually say? This guide breaks down everything we know — the mechanisms, the evidence, the safety profile, and the regulatory reality — so you can separate the research from the hype.

Quick Facts

Property	Detail
Full Name	Body Protection Compound-157
Other Names	Bepecin, PL 14736, PL-10
Type	Synthetic pentadecapeptide (15 amino acids)
Amino Acid Sequence	Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val
Molecular Weight	1,419.53 Da
Origin	Derived from a protein in human gastric juice
First Described	1993 (Sikiric et al., University of Zagreb)
Half-Life	Less than 30 minutes (injectable/IV)
Stability	Stable in human gastric juice for 24+ hours
FDA Status	Not approved; Category 2 bulk drug substance
WADA Status	Prohibited (S0: Non-Approved Substances, since 2022)
Human Clinical Trials	3 small studies published as of 2025
Animal Studies	200+ published (PubMed)

What Is BPC-157?

BPC-157 is a synthetic peptide made of 15 amino acids, first described in 1993 by Professor Predrag Sikiric and colleagues at the University of Zagreb, Croatia. The team was studying the stomach's ability to protect and repair itself — a phenomenon called cytoprotection — when they identified a protective protein in human gastric juice they named "Body Protection Compound" (BPC).

From that protein, they isolated a 15-amino-acid fragment that appeared responsible for much of BPC's biological activity. That fragment became BPC-157.

An important distinction: while the parent BPC protein occurs naturally in gastric juice, the specific 15-amino-acid sequence used in research is synthetic. No one has found this exact fragment circulating freely in the body. Researchers built it in a lab to study the stomach's protective properties in a more targeted way.

What made BPC-157 stand out was its extraordinary stability. Most peptides break down within minutes in stomach acid. BPC-157 remains intact in human gastric juice for more than 24 hours — making oral administration possible, which is unusual for a therapeutic peptide.

Over the following three decades, Sikiric's lab and other groups published over 200 studies examining BPC-157's effects across a remarkable range of tissues: gut, tendons, ligaments, muscles, bones, skin, corneas, blood vessels, and the central nervous system. The consistency of positive results across so many models is part of what makes BPC-157 so intriguing — and part of what makes some scientists cautious.

How BPC-157 Works: Mechanisms of Action

BPC-157 does not work through a single receptor or one clean pathway. It operates through several interconnected mechanisms, which likely explains why its effects show up across so many tissue types.

VEGF and Angiogenesis (New Blood Vessel Formation)

The best-studied mechanism is BPC-157's ability to stimulate angiogenesis — the growth of new blood vessels. It does this by upregulating VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) and activating the VEGFR2 receptor pathway. New blood vessels bring oxygen and nutrients to damaged tissue, making this pathway central to wound healing.

In endothelial cell studies, BPC-157 also activates the ERK1/2 signaling cascade, which drives cell proliferation, migration, and vascular tube formation. Downstream, it triggers transcription factors (c-Fos, c-Jun, EGR-1) that regulate genes involved in tissue remodeling and repair.

BPC-157 also activates NAB2, a corepressor of EGR-1, forming a feedback loop that appears to prevent angiogenic signaling from spiraling out of control. This self-limiting mechanism is worth noting given concerns about uncontrolled blood vessel growth (more on that in the safety section).

Growth Hormone Receptor Upregulation

In tendon fibroblasts, one of the most abundantly upregulated genes after BPC-157 exposure is the growth hormone receptor. BPC-157 dose- and time-dependently increases growth hormone receptor expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. This may amplify the body's natural growth and repair signaling at the site of injury without increasing circulating growth hormone levels.

Cell Migration and Survival (FAK-Paxillin Pathway)

For wound healing, cells need to reach the damaged site and survive hostile conditions there. BPC-157 activates the FAK-paxillin pathway in a dose-dependent manner. FAK (focal adhesion kinase) and paxillin help cells anchor to surfaces and move — both necessary for rebuilding tissue.

In tendon explants, BPC-157 significantly increased cell survival under oxidative stress and markedly boosted cell migration, though it did not directly stimulate cell proliferation.

Nitric Oxide System Modulation

BPC-157 interacts with the nitric oxide (NO) system, which plays a broad role in blood flow regulation, inflammation, and tissue protection. In ischemia/reperfusion models, BPC-157 modulates the expression of multiple NO synthase genes (NOS1, NOS2, NOS3), along with Akt and other signaling molecules. This NO pathway interaction likely contributes to its vascular and anti-inflammatory effects.

Neurotransmitter System Interactions

BPC-157 interacts with both the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. Rather than simply raising or lowering neurotransmitter levels, it appears to stabilize them — restoring balance when these systems are disrupted. In animal models of dopamine dysfunction (using amphetamines, neuroleptics, or the neurotoxin MPTP), BPC-157 counteracted abnormal behaviors and biochemical imbalances.

This adaptive quality — nudging systems toward balance rather than pushing them in one direction — is a recurring theme in BPC-157 research and may help explain its apparent safety at the doses studied.

Research Evidence by Category

Tendon, Ligament, and Muscle Repair

This is where most of the attention is, especially among athletes and sports medicine practitioners. A 2025 systematic review identified 36 studies (35 preclinical, 1 clinical) from 544 articles spanning 1993-2024. The preclinical findings were consistently positive.

Achilles tendon studies are among the most detailed. In rats with fully transected Achilles tendons, BPC-157 (10 μg/kg body weight, given intraperitoneally once daily starting 30 minutes after surgery) improved every measured outcome compared to untreated controls:

Biomechanically: Increased load to failure, load to failure per area, and Young's modulus of elasticity
Functionally: Significantly higher Achilles functional index (AFI) scores
Microscopically: Better fibroblast formation, more collagen and reticulin fibers, fewer inflammatory granulocytes
Macroscopically: Smaller tendon defects and faster restoration of full tendon integrity

In tendon-to-bone detachment models, where spontaneous healing does not occur, BPC-157 restored the connection — something controls could not achieve. The peptide also counteracted the healing impairment caused by methylprednisolone (a corticosteroid commonly used to manage inflammation but known to weaken tendons).

Muscle injuries show similar patterns. BPC-157 has improved outcomes in animal models of muscle crushing, muscle detachment from bone, and muscle transection.

The single human study here is a retrospective report on 12 patients with chronic knee pain who received a single intraarticular BPC-157 injection. Seven of twelve (58%) reported pain relief lasting more than six months. Encouraging, but unblinded and uncontrolled — far from definitive.

For another peptide studied for musculoskeletal repair, see our guide on TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4 Fragment), which shares overlapping mechanisms including angiogenesis promotion. The parent molecule, Thymosin Beta-4, has its own research profile on tissue repair.

Gastrointestinal Healing

Given BPC-157's origin in gastric juice, its effects on the GI tract are the least surprising — and among the most extensively studied.

It has been tested in animal models of gastric ulcers, intestinal ulcers, NSAID-induced gut damage, IBD, short bowel syndrome, various GI fistulas, and anastomotic healing. In each case, it accelerated healing and reduced damage. Standout findings:

Inflammatory bowel disease: BPC-157 was actually tested in Phase II clinical trials for ulcerative colitis (under the designation PL-10 and PLD-116), making this one of its few forays into formal human testing. While full trial results have not been published in peer-reviewed journals, the peptide advanced through this stage without reported toxicity.
Fistula healing: In rat models, BPC-157 closed colocutaneous fistulas even when treatment was delayed by a full month after fistula formation. Standard treatments (sulphasalazine, corticosteroids) were either less effective or actually worsened outcomes.
Short bowel syndrome: In rats with surgically shortened intestines, BPC-157 prevented the progressive weight loss seen in controls and increased villus height, crypt depth, and muscle wall thickness.
NSAID protection: BPC-157 has repeatedly shown cytoprotective effects against NSAID-induced gut damage — relevant since NSAIDs are among the most common causes of gastric ulcers.

A 2025 abstract presented at the American College of Gastroenterology described BPC-157 as "an emerging adjunct" in GI practice, reflecting growing interest from the gastroenterology community.

Neuroprotection and Brain Health

Less extensive than the musculoskeletal or GI work, the neuroprotective research still tells a consistent story across several models.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI): In mouse models of TBI, BPC-157 given 30 minutes before injury improved the ratio of conscious-to-unconscious-to-dead animals across multiple force levels. At 24 hours post-injury, surviving treated mice had less brain edema, smaller hemorrhagic lesions, and reduced subarachnoid and intraventricular bleeding compared to controls.

Stroke (ischemia/reperfusion): In rats, BPC-157 administered during reperfusion counteracted both early and delayed neural damage (at 24 and 72 hours after reperfusion) and promoted full functional recovery. The protective effects correlated with changes in expression of multiple genes including Vegfr2, Nos1, Nos2, Nos3, Akt1, and Egr1.

Spinal cord injury: In rats with spinal cord compression causing tail paralysis, BPC-157 addressed axonal and neuronal necrosis, demyelination, and cyst formation, and improved tail function in both short-term and long-term treatment windows.

Dopamine system protection: BPC-157 attenuated damage from MPTP (a neurotoxin that destroys dopamine neurons and models Parkinson's disease), counteracted catalepsy from reserpine (even 24 hours after onset), and reversed behavioral disturbances from amphetamines and neuroleptics.

For other peptides with neuroprotective properties, see our profiles on Semax and Selank, both studied for cognitive and neurological effects through different mechanisms.

Wound Healing and Skin Repair

BPC-157's wound healing research spans thermal burns, chemical burns, and incisional wounds.

In mice with deep partial-thickness burns (20% body surface area), topical BPC-157 cream outperformed both untreated controls and silver sulfadiazine (a standard burn treatment). Treated mice showed less edema, less necrosis, more capillary formation, and better collagen development. After two weeks, BPC-157-treated mice achieved full re-epithelialization while controls had not.

In alkali burn models, topical BPC-157 accelerated wound closure with better granulation tissue, more organized reepithelialization, and higher collagen deposition.

Corneal healing studies showed BPC-157 eye drops accelerated epithelial defect healing dose-dependently. In perforating injuries, treated eyes healed faster starting at 24 hours, with narrower wound channels and more organized tissue. BPC-157 also maintained corneal transparency in dry eye models.

For another peptide with wound healing properties, see our profile on GHK-Cu (copper peptide), which works through different but complementary mechanisms.

Bone Healing

Though studied less extensively than soft tissue, BPC-157 has shown positive effects on bone healing in animal models. The 2025 systematic review noted improved outcomes in fracture models, and the peptide has been studied in segmental bone defect models where it accelerated callus formation and bone remodeling.

Routes of Administration: Oral vs. Injectable

How BPC-157 enters the body matters for what it does and where it works.

Injectable (Subcutaneous, Intramuscular, Intraperitoneal)

Most animal studies use intraperitoneal injection (standard in rodent research). In human contexts, subcutaneous injection is most commonly discussed.

Injectable BPC-157 provides higher bioavailability (estimated 14-51% depending on route and formulation) and faster systemic distribution. For musculoskeletal injuries and systemic effects, injection is the route used in nearly all preclinical research.

A 2025 pilot safety study tested intravenous BPC-157 infusions at 10 mg and 20 mg in two healthy adults, finding no adverse effects. Plasma levels returned to baseline within 24 hours.

Oral

BPC-157's unusual stability in gastric juice makes oral administration viable — something most therapeutic peptides cannot claim. However, systemic bioavailability after oral dosing is lower than injection.

Where oral dosing may have an advantage is for gastrointestinal conditions. Swallowed BPC-157 passes through the stomach and intestinal tract, making direct contact with GI tissues. For gut inflammation, ulcers, or intestinal permeability issues, this route delivers the peptide right where it is needed.

The oral bioavailability question is complicated by salt form. BPC-157 comes in two main forms: the acetate salt (more common commercially) and the arginate salt (patented by Diagen, a company linked to BPC-157's original researchers). Claims that the arginate form achieves over 90% oral bioavailability while acetate sits below 3% circulate widely online, but these numbers come from manufacturer data — not independent peer-reviewed research.

Dosing in Research Settings

No human dose-finding studies exist. What we have is a patchwork of doses from animal studies and the handful of human investigations.

Preclinical doses: Most animal studies use either 10 μg/kg or 10 ng/kg body weight, administered once or twice daily. This represents a thousand-fold range, and both doses have shown effects — suggesting BPC-157 may be active across a very wide dose window.

Human pilot data: The single IV safety study tested 10 mg and 20 mg (far higher than typical research doses) without adverse effects. The knee injection study used a single intraarticular dose, though the exact amount was not standardized.

Practitioner-reported doses: Clinicians who use BPC-157 off-label commonly report doses of 200-500 μg daily via subcutaneous injection, typically for 4-6 week cycles. These doses are not derived from controlled trials.

The half-life following injection is less than 30 minutes, meaning BPC-157 clears the bloodstream rapidly. Whether its biological effects outlast its plasma presence — as they appear to in animal studies — remains an open question.

Safety Profile and Side Effects

What Animal Studies Show

The preclinical safety data is unusually clean. Across hundreds of studies using doses from 6 μg/kg to 20 mg/kg, administered through multiple routes (oral, IP, IM, IV, topical), no lethal dose has been identified.

Formal toxicology assessments found:

No test-related effects in single-dose toxicity studies
Good tolerance in repeated-dose evaluations
Only mild local irritation at injection sites
No genotoxicity or embryo-fetal toxicity
LD50 higher than 2,000 mg/kg in mice (both oral and IV)

Important caveat: No animal study has tracked adverse events beyond 6 weeks. Long-term safety data does not exist.

What Human Data Shows

The human data is extremely limited — three small studies total:

IV safety study (2025): Two healthy adults received IV infusions up to 20 mg. No adverse effects on vital signs, ECG, or lab biomarkers. Plasma BPC-157 returned to baseline within 24 hours.
Knee injection study: 12 patients received intraarticular BPC-157 for chronic knee pain. No adverse events reported.
Interstitial cystitis study: Small pilot with no reported adverse effects.

These studies are too small and too short to draw firm safety conclusions for broader populations, but the absence of red flags at these doses is noted.

Commonly Reported Side Effects (Anecdotal)

Based on practitioner reports and patient accounts (not controlled studies), the most commonly mentioned side effects include:

Mild nausea or GI discomfort, particularly at higher oral doses
Lightheadedness or dizziness (infrequent)
Injection site redness or irritation

The frequency and severity of these reports are difficult to assess without controlled data.

The Angiogenesis Question: Cancer Risk

This deserves its own section because it is the most significant theoretical safety concern around BPC-157.

BPC-157 promotes angiogenesis — new blood vessel growth. This is one of its primary healing mechanisms. But angiogenesis is also how tumors establish their blood supply. Cancer cells cannot grow beyond a tiny cluster without recruiting blood vessels to feed them. Anti-angiogenic drugs (like bevacizumab) are used in cancer treatment for exactly this reason.

The concern: If BPC-157 stimulates blood vessel growth, could it accelerate an undetected cancer? This is a legitimate theoretical question that researchers and clinicians take seriously.

What the research says so far:

No animal study has reported tumor formation or cancer promotion from BPC-157, even at high doses and extended treatment periods.
The only cancer-related BPC-157 study actually showed a positive effect: in a colon adenocarcinoma-induced cachexia model, BPC-157 improved total body weight and reduced pro-inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-alpha). It did not accelerate tumor growth.
BPC-157's activation of the EGR-1/NAB2 feedback loop may prevent uncontrolled angiogenic signaling, though this has only been demonstrated in cell and rodent models.
No vascular tumors or blood pressure abnormalities have been observed in any published study.

The honest assessment: Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. No one has run a dedicated study asking whether BPC-157 accelerates tumor progression in cancer-bearing animals or humans. The theoretical risk remains unresolved. Individuals with a history of cancer, active malignancies, or high cancer risk should weigh this uncertainty carefully with their healthcare providers.

Some clinicians recommend cancer screening appropriate for age and risk profile before considering BPC-157 — a precaution rooted in common sense even without direct BPC-157/cancer data.

Legal and Regulatory Status

The regulatory situation around BPC-157 is complicated and has tightened significantly in recent years.

FDA Status (United States)

BPC-157 is not FDA-approved for any use in humans or animals. In 2023, the FDA placed it on the Category 2 bulk drug substance list, meaning it has safety concerns and cannot be used by compounding pharmacies. This was significant — previously, many compounding pharmacies produced BPC-157 for clinicians.

The FDA has actively enforced this. Tailor Made Compounding LLC pleaded guilty to distributing BPC-157 and other unapproved drugs, forfeiting $1.79 million.

BPC-157 is not a dietary supplement ingredient. Products marketed as such operate outside FDA regulations.

WADA (Athletes)

BPC-157 was added to the WADA Prohibited List in 2022 under S0: Non-Approved Substances — the first substance ever named specifically as an example in that category. It is banned both in-competition and out-of-competition. There is no Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) pathway because BPC-157 has no approved medical use.

Detection methods exist: BPC-157 can be identified in urine and blood using mass spectrometry, with a detection window of up to 4 days. First-offense penalties range from 2-4 year competition bans, with potential lifetime bans for repeat violations.

Military (United States)

BPC-157 appears on the DoD Prohibited Dietary Supplement Ingredients List. Service members are advised against its use.

Consumer Access

Despite these restrictions, BPC-157 remains accessible. It is not a DEA-scheduled substance, so personal possession is not criminally illegal. It is widely sold online as a "research chemical" and used by clinics across the United States. The result is a legal gray area: the peptide is not illegal to possess, but there is no legal pathway for it to be prescribed, compounded, or sold as a drug or dietary supplement.

For another peptide with similarly complex regulatory status, see our overview of LL-37, an antimicrobial peptide that faces its own regulatory challenges.

Limitations of Current Research

Being honest about limitations is as important as describing findings. Here are the most significant concerns:

Most Research Comes From One Lab

The vast majority of roughly 200 PubMed-listed BPC-157 studies include either Predrag Sikiric or his colleague Sven Seiwerth as authors. Sikiric also has commercial ties: he is named on BPC-157 patents and is listed as CEO of Diagen, which holds patent rights to a specific formulation.

This does not mean the research is wrong. But independent replication is how findings gain credibility in science. When one group produces nearly all the evidence for a compound they have commercial interests in, scrutiny is warranted.

Almost No Human Data

Out of 200+ studies, only three involve human subjects — roughly 16 people combined. None was randomized or blinded. The evidence base is overwhelmingly rat and mouse models, which do not always translate to humans.

Publication Bias

A 2025 systematic review noted that every published BPC-157 study reports positive effects. In any large body of research, some null or negative results are expected. Their absence raises the possibility of publication bias — studies showing no effect simply going unpublished.

No Long-Term Safety Data

No study has tracked outcomes beyond 6 weeks in animals, and no human study has assessed long-term effects. For a compound that promotes angiogenesis and modulates growth factor signaling, this gap matters.

Mechanism Not Fully Clarified

Despite proposing multiple pathways, the precise mechanism has not been fully worked out. How a gastric peptide fragment produces effects in the brain, tendons, skin, and blood vessels through a unified mechanism (if one exists) remains open.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is BPC-157 used for?

In research settings, BPC-157 has been studied for its effects on musculoskeletal healing (tendons, ligaments, muscles, bone), gastrointestinal protection and repair, wound healing, neuroprotection, and blood vessel function. It is not approved for any medical use.

Is BPC-157 natural?

The larger Body Protection Compound protein exists naturally in human gastric juice. But the specific 15-amino-acid BPC-157 peptide used in research is a synthetic fragment that does not occur naturally in isolated form. It was designed in a lab to replicate the parent protein's activity.

Can BPC-157 be taken orally?

Yes — BPC-157 is unusually stable in gastric juice (24+ hours), making oral dosing feasible. Oral BPC-157 is considered most relevant for GI conditions, where the peptide contacts target tissues directly. For systemic effects (musculoskeletal, neuroprotection), injectable routes provide higher bioavailability.

Is BPC-157 legal?

It depends on context. BPC-157 is not a controlled substance, and personal possession is not illegal in the US. But it cannot be legally prescribed, compounded by pharmacies, or sold as a drug or supplement. For athletes, it is prohibited by WADA and all major sports organizations. For military personnel, it is on the DoD prohibited list.

What are the side effects of BPC-157?

Animal studies across wide dose ranges have found no significant adverse effects. The limited human data (three small studies) also reports no adverse events. Anecdotal reports mention occasional nausea, dizziness, and injection site irritation. The main theoretical concern is its pro-angiogenic activity and unknown implications for individuals with cancer or pre-cancerous conditions.

How is BPC-157 different from TB-500?

Both are studied for tissue repair, but through different mechanisms. BPC-157 promotes healing primarily through VEGF-driven angiogenesis, growth hormone receptor upregulation, and NO system modulation. TB-500 (a fragment of Thymosin Beta-4) works mainly through actin regulation, affecting cell migration and cytoskeletal organization. Some practitioners have explored combining them, though formal combination studies are lacking.

Does BPC-157 show up on drug tests?

Yes. Modern anti-doping tests can detect BPC-157 in urine and blood using mass spectrometry, with a detection window of approximately 4 days.

The Bottom Line

BPC-157 presents a genuine scientific paradox. The preclinical evidence is remarkably consistent across an unusual breadth of tissue types — tendons, ligaments, muscles, bones, gut lining, skin, corneas, nervous tissue. Its safety profile in animals is clean across a wide dose range. Its mechanisms are biologically plausible.

At the same time, nearly all the evidence comes from one research group with commercial ties. Human data barely exists. Long-term safety studies have not been done. The cancer question is unresolved. And regulators have moved to restrict access.

What this means depends on who you are. Researchers should push for independent replication and proper clinical trials. Clinicians should view the evidence as promising but preliminary. Consumers should understand that the gap between compelling animal data and near-absent human evidence is the single most important fact about BPC-157.

The peptide field is moving fast — compounds like Thymosin Alpha-1, Epitalon, and DSIP are all generating interest. But for any peptide lacking FDA approval and robust human data, the same principle holds: the science is interesting, the potential is real, and the evidence is not yet where it needs to be.

The most responsible step is to read the research, talk to a qualified healthcare provider, and demand better human studies. The hype should not get ahead of the data — but the data should not be dismissed either.

This article is for educational purposes only. PeptideJournal.org does not sell peptides, provide medical advice, or recommend the use of any unapproved substances. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before making decisions about your health.

References

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